Author ORCID Identifier
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1629-1450
Date Available
12-8-2025
Year of Publication
2025
Document Type
Doctoral Dissertation
Degree Name
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
College
Agriculture, Food and Environment
Department/School/Program
Entomology
Faculty
Zach DeVries
Abstract
Bed bugs are blood-feeding hemipterans strongly associated with humans. Their detection in indoor environments, such as homes, hotels, trains, and public facilities, has increased gradually over the past 20 years. The exact cause of their resurgence is still unclear, but the increase of international travel and insecticide resistance are thought to have contributed to it.
Although bed bugs are not known to transmit diseases, the EPA, CDC, and USDA have classified them as a pest of significant public health concern, mainly due to the dermatitis that they can cause. Beyond the dermatological burden of the bites, other health implications often include the onset of secondary infections due to scratching the lesion and psychological discomfort, like stress, anxiety, depression, which usually arises in people who deal with bed bug infestations for a long time.
In recent years, it has been discovered that bed bugs excrete histamine in their feces as part of their aggregation pheromone. As bed bug-derived histamine is the same molecule that modulates the immune response in humans, environmental exposure to this contaminant could potentially lead to allergic reactions. However, limited information exists regarding the environmental release of histamine by arthropods, its stability in the environment, mitigation strategies, and its clinical relevance.
Eradication of the bed bug infestations remains the key to avoiding new deposits of histamine, but bed bugs are among the most difficult indoor pests to control due to their cryptic behavior and growing resistance to insecticides. Many commercially available products contain active ingredients to which bed bugs have developed resistance, and their limited residual efficacy makes it challenging to completely eradicate infestations. Exploring alternative products with different modes of action, particularly those that offer longer-lasting effects, is essential to address the issue of bed bugs' cryptic behavior.
This dissertation covers different aspects of bed bug-derived histamine and bed bug control by investigating the arthropods capable of releasing histamine in their feces, as well as histamine stability and mitigation strategies. Additionally, as the best way to reduce this contaminant indoors is to eliminate its source, this work evaluates the efficacy of the first entomopathogenic fungus-based biopesticide for bed bug control. Chapter one provides a comprehensive background to the dissertation.
Chapter two investigates the sources of histamine in the environment. Over 20 species of common indoor and blood-feeding arthropods were screened to determine their ability to excrete histamine in their feces. The study found that only hematophagous hemipterans, specifically species from the families Cimicidae and Reduviidae, were capable of histamine excretion. Among these species, the common bed bug, being the most prevalent, was identified as the primary source of environmental histamine in the U.S.
Chapter three identifies the most effective cleaning strategies to mitigate histamine contamination in the environment. The study assessed the efficacy of various cleaning products on different surfaces contaminated by bed bug feces. Pest control interventions were also tested but were found ineffective in breaking down histamine. Furthermore, histamine was found to be remarkably stable, remaining on surfaces at room temperature for up to 9 months.
Chapter four focuses on the evaluation of the biopesticide Aprehend for bed bug control. The study assessed its efficacy on different substrates commonly found in homes and various barrier widths. The results showed that Aprehend was most effective on fabric and smooth, hard surfaces, while it exhibited lower efficacy on unfinished woods. This reduced effectiveness was attributed to the smaller number of conidia collected by bed bugs on such surfaces.
Chapter five outlines the conclusions, summarizing the current knowledge on the topic, its limitations, and future directions, while also presenting some current research on the clinical relevance of bed bug feces extracts to human health.
Digital Object Identifier (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.13023/etd.2025.531
Funding Information
-
- National Institutes of Health through the NIH Director’s Early Independence Award (DP5-OD028155 to ZCD)
- New Mexico State University Agricultural Experiment Station and UCR Urban Entomology Endowed Chair Research Fund
- Bill Gatton Foundation (ZCD)
- Kerri Casner Environmental Sciences Fellowship (SP)
- Pest Management Foundation Scholarship (SP)
- Pi Chi Omega Scholarship (SP)
Recommended Citation
Principato, Simona, "BED BUGS: HEALTH RISKS AND CONTROL" (2025). Theses and Dissertations--Entomology. 93.
https://uknowledge.uky.edu/entomology_etds/93
